The Roots of the Modern Middle East Conflict: From Ottoman Rule to Colonial Carve-Up

You may drive out Nature with a pitchfork, yet she’ll be back.

Introduction

To understand the modern Middle East — and particularly the long-standing tensions in Israel, Palestine, and surrounding countries — it helps to go back more than a century. Long before the State of Israel was declared or any recent wars began, this land was part of the vast Ottoman Empire.

This article offers a 101 introduction to Ottoman rule in the region historically known as Palestine, and explains how the British and French helped reshape the region in ways that continue to reverberate through today's headlines.

The Ottoman Empire in the Middle East

From 1516 until World War I, much of the Middle East — including present-day Israel, the West Bank, Gaza, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq — was ruled by the Ottoman Empire, based in modern-day Turkey.

The Ottomans administered the region through provinces (or vilayets) and allowed a degree of local autonomy. In Palestine, a diverse population of Muslims, Christians, and Jews coexisted under Ottoman law. Land ownership and identity were often defined more by family, religion, and city affiliation than by nationalism.

Importantly, there was no “Palestinian” state at the time — but there was a geographic region called Palestine, recognized as part of the larger Ottoman administrative structure. Jerusalem was a significant spiritual center and had its own special status.

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottomans joined the Central Powers in World War I and, after their defeat in 1918, the empire rapidly collapsed. This opened the door for European colonial powers to shape the future of the Middle East — and redraw its borders.

The Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)

In the middle of the war, Britain and France secretly agreed on how to divide up the Ottoman Arab provinces if they won. This agreement — known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement — laid the foundation for many of today’s national borders.

Under the plan:

• France would control modern-day Syria and Lebanon
• Britain would control modern-day Iraq and Jordan
• Palestine would be under international administration (later changed)

This deal was made without the knowledge or consent of the Arab populations who had been promised independence in return for rising up against the Ottomans. When the Sykes-Picot Agreement was revealed by the Bolsheviks after the Russian Revolution, it caused outrage across the Arab world.

The British Mandate and the Balfour Declaration

After the war, the League of Nations granted Britain control over Palestine under what became known as the British Mandate for Palestine (1920–1948). France received a similar mandate over Syria and Lebanon.

At the same time, Britain had issued the Balfour Declaration (1917), which stated that the British government supported “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people,” while also promising not to harm the rights of existing non-Jewish communities.

This created a contradiction — supporting Jewish immigration while trying to maintain peace with the Arab majority living in Palestine. Tensions quickly rose as Jewish migration increased in the 1920s and 1930s, leading to riots, resistance, and growing calls for both independence and statehood from multiple sides.

Why This History Still Matters

The modern conflict between Israelis and Palestinians — and the broader regional instability — has deep roots in this colonial past. Borders were drawn arbitrarily. Promises were made and broken. Local communities were often excluded from the decisions that determined their futures.

While the Ottoman Empire administered the region for centuries with relative decentralization, European colonial powers imposed new borders, systems, and strategic interests that planted the seeds of many future conflicts.

Conclusion

Understanding the origins of the modern Middle East conflict requires looking back to the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the colonial decisions that followed. The Sykes-Picot Agreement, the Balfour Declaration, and the British Mandate fundamentally reshaped the region — and set the stage for a century of struggle over identity, sovereignty, and land.

In future articles, we’ll explore how the situation evolved through the World Wars, the founding of Israel in 1948, and the ongoing cycles of violence, negotiation, and unrest that continue to this day.